Country-of-Origin Scale

What it measures

A multidimensional country-of-origin measure distinguishing general country-level attitudes from general and specific product-level attitudes, validated across automobile and blender categories with German and Korean brands. The 1994 version (35 items, 8 factors) expands the 1992 version (24 items, 6 factors) with additional GCA and SPA items. Factor reliability ranges from 0.586 to 0.943 depending on dimension and product category. The SPA dimension is product-specific and requires custom items per category. Used in comparative COO research, brand origin studies, and multinational product positioning.

Response format

10-point scale (1=not at all appropriate to 10=most appropriate); items summed within factors. Two versions: 24-item (1992) and 35-item (1994). Scale is multidimensional — subscale scores only, not overall total.

Scale items

General Country Attitudes (GCA) — 1994 version — country competence, similarity, and global engagement (10-pt, 1=not at all appropriate, 10=most appropriate)

• C1. Friendly & likable
• C2. Artistic & creative
• C3. Well educated
• C4. Hard-working
• C5. Technical education
• C6. Achieving high standards
• C7. Raised standards of living
• C8. Technical skills
• C9. Similar political views
• C10. Economically similar
• C11. Culturally similar
• C12. Participates in international affairs

General Product Attitudes (GPA) — 1994 version — cross-category product perceptions (10-pt)

• P1. Unreasonably expensive
• P2. Luxury products
• P3. Meticulous workmanship
• P4. Imitations
• P5. Known mainly for industrial products
• P6. Sold in many countries
• P7. Not attractive
• P8. Intensely advertised
• P9. Frequent repairs
• P10. Wide range of models
• P11. Long lasting
• P12. Advertising informative
• P13. Difficult to service
• P14. Cheaply put together
• P15. High technology
• P16. Good value
• P17. Easily available
• P18. Prestigious product

1992 version GCA1 (5 items) — country competence

• Well educated
• Hard-working
• Achieving high standards
• Raised standards of living
• Technical skills

1992 version GCA2 (3 items) — similarity

• Similar political views
• Economically similar
• Culturally similar

1992 version GPA1 (5 items) — negative product attributes

• Unreasonably expensive
• Imitations
• Not attractive
• Frequent repairs
• Cheaply put together

1992 version GPA2 (4 items) — distribution & promotion

• Sold in many countries
• Intensely advertised
• Advertising information
• Easily available

1992 version GPA3 (3 items) — positive product quality

• Long lasting
• Good value
• Prestigious products

1992 version SPA (4 items) — automobile-specific product attributes

• Workmanship good
• Handles well
• Little maintenance
• Made to last

Full scale items shown. Always cite the original source when using this scale in research.

Usage notes & scoring

The scale is multidimensional — sum items within factors only; do NOT create an overall total score. The SPA factor is product-category specific and must be adapted for each study. Factor alphas for the 1994 version range from 0.586 (3-item SPA2 blender) to 0.943 (8-item SPA1 blender). The 1992 and 1994 versions share most GCA and GPA items but differ in SPA content. Particularly useful for studies comparing product-specific perceptions across countries of origin.

Recommended companion scales

Citation

Parameswaran, R., & Pisharodi, R.M. (1994). Facets of country-of-origin image: An empirical assessment. Journal of Advertising, 23(1), 44–56.

Keywords