Pure Procrastination Scale

What it measures

The psychometrically superior general procrastination measure, developed using IRT applied to a large item pool across multiple samples (total n>5,000) to select items that most efficiently measure the procrastination continuum. Alpha 0.89–0.91; strong convergent validity with Lay's (1986) GPS (r=0.87) and Tuckman's (1991) TPS (r=0.82). Unidimensional structure confirmed by CFA. Steel's (2007) temporal motivation theory meta-analysis (k=216, n=38,000) identified procrastination as arising from low self-efficacy, high task aversiveness, high impulsiveness, and low future orientation — PPS items were selected to capture this construct efficiently. The PPS does not support the popular typology of 'arousal,' 'avoidant,' and 'decisional' procrastinators: Steel's (2010) IRT analysis shows these are positions on a single continuum rather than empirically distinct types. In consumer contexts, higher PPS scores predict greater purchase delay for complex or high-involvement choices, lower savings behaviour, avoidance of product returns and complaints, and lower health screening compliance. The PPS is recommended when procrastination is the primary construct of interest and high measurement precision per item is needed.

Response format

5-point Likert (1=strongly disagree to 5=strongly agree); items 4, 9, 10, and 12 are reverse-scored; items averaged

Scale items

• I delay making decisions until it's too late.
• I keep putting off tasks that require a lot of mental effort.
• I manage to find reasons not to get started.
• I am prompt about finishing tasks I don't like. (R)
• I often have trouble getting started on tasks, even when I know I should begin.
• I avoid doing things until they are absolutely necessary.
• I keep saying I'll do it tomorrow.
• I waste time doing trivial things instead of tackling the important things.
• I usually deal right away with requests or obligations. (R)
• I make a point of starting tasks well ahead of deadlines. (R)
• I put off important tasks, doing less important things instead.
• I don't delay things once I decide to do them. (R)

Full scale items shown. Always cite the original source when using this scale in research.

Usage notes & scoring

Items 4, 9, 10, and 12 are reverse-scored before averaging. Score = mean (range 1–5); higher = greater procrastination tendency. Developed using IRT — items were selected for maximum information at the midpoint of the procrastination continuum, making the PPS more precise than classical CTT-developed measures. The PPS does not distinguish between procrastination subtypes: Steel's (2010) analysis finds minimal empirical support for arousal, avoidant, and decisional categories. Compare with Lay (1986, id:269) and Tuckman (1991, id:499) — all three capture general procrastination and are highly convergent (r=0.82–0.87). The Irrational Procrastination Scale (IPS, Steel 2010) is a companion 9-item measure focused specifically on the irrationality dimension of delay. The PPS is recommended for primary procrastination research; TPS or GPS may be used as covariates in broader self-regulation studies.

Recommended companion scales

Citation

Steel, P. (2010). Arousal, avoidant and decisional procrastinators: Do they exist? Personality and Individual Differences, 48(8), 926–934.

Keywords